CULINARY
HISTORY
Like any fine art, great cookery requires taste and creativity, an
appreciation of beauty and a mastery of technique. Like the sciences,
successful cookery demands knowledge and an understanding of the basic
principles. And like any successful leader, today’s professional chefs must
exercise sound judgment and be committed to achieving excellence in their endeavors.
Chefs
and Restaurants
Cooks/Chefs have produced food in quantity for as long as people
have eaten together. For millennia, chefs have catered to the often elaborate
dining needs of the wealthy and the powerful. But the history of the
professional chef is fairly recent. Its cast is mostly French, and it is
intertwined with the history of restaurants – for only with the development of
the restaurants during the late 18th Century and the early
19th Century was chef’s expected to produce, efficiently and economically,
different dishes at different times for different diners.
The 18th Century – Boulanger’s Restaurants
The word restaurant is derived from the
French word restaurer (to restore). Since the 16th Century, the
word restorative has been used to describe rich and highly flavored soups or
stews capable of restoring lost strength during recuperation from illness.
Restoratives, like all other cooked foods offered and purchased from outside
the house, were made by guild members. Each guild had the monopoly
of preparing certain types of food items. For example, during the reign of
Henri IV (1533-1610), there were separate guilds for rotisseurs (who
spit roasted large joints of meat), patisiers (who cooked pies and
tarts, often made with poultry), tamisiers ( who baked
breads), vinaigriers (who made sauces and some stews)
and porte-chapes (caterers who organized feasts and celebrations).
The French claim that the world’s
first modern restaurant was opened in 1765, when a Parisian tavern keeper,
a Monsieur Boulanger, hung a sign advertising the sale of a special restorative,
a dish of sheep’s feet in a white sauce. His establishment closed a short while
later because of a lawsuit brought by a guild, whose members claimed that
Boulanger was infringing on their exclusive rights to sell prepared dishes.
Boulanger won in court and later reopened.
Boulanger’s establishment differed from the numerous inns and
taverns that existed across Europe for centuries. These inns and taverns served
foods prepared off premises by the various guilds. The choice was very limited.
The food was an add-on to the basic service of sleeping accommodation and
drink.
Several other restaurants opened in Paris during the succeeding
decades, including the Grande Taverne de Londres in 1782. Its owner,
Antoine Beauvilliers (1754-1817) was the former steward to the Comte de
Provence, later, King Louis VIII of France. He advanced the development of the
modern restaurant by offering his wealthy patrons a menu listing available
dishes during fixed hours.
The French Revolution (1789-1799) had a
significant effect on the budding restaurant industry. Along with the
aristocracy, the guilds and their monopolies were abolished. The revolution
also allowed public access to the skills and creativity of the well trained and
sophisticated chefs who had worked in the private kitchens of the aristocracy.
Although many of the aristocracy’s chefs either left the country or lost
their jobs, a few enterprising ones open restaurants catering to the growing
urbanized middle class in the new Republic.
The Early 19th Century – Carême and Grande
Cuisine
As the 19th Century progressed, more
restaurants opened, serving a greater selection of items and catering to a
wider clientele. By mid century, several large grand restaurants in Paris were
serving elaborate meals reminiscent of the grande
cuisine or haute cuisine of the aristocracy. Grande Cuisine
reached its peak at the hands of Antonin Carême, whose meals were
characterized by several courses, each intricately prepared, presented and
garnished. Other restaurateurs blended the techniques and styles of grande
cuisine with the simpler foods and tastes of the middle classes (cuisine
bourgeoisie) to create a new cuisine, simpler than grande cuisine but more
than mere home cooking.
The Late 19th Century – Escoffier
and Cuisine Classique
Following the lead set by the French in both culinary style and the
restaurant business, restaurants opened throughout Europe and indeed across the
world as well. During the 19th century Charles Ranhofer opened the first
American restaurant in New York – Delmonico’s. One of the finest
restaurants outside France was at the Savoy Hotel in London opened by Cesar
Ritz in 1898. The chef was the renowned Auguste Escoffier. Escoffier was
generally credited with the refining of Grande Cuisine established by
Carême, to create cuisine classique orclassical cuisine. By doing so,
he brought French cuisine to the world and to the 20th century.
The Mid -20th entury – Point and Nouvelle
Cuisine
The mid 20th century witnessed a trend towards lighter and more
simply prepared foods. Fernand Point was a master practitioner of
this movement. But this master’s goal of simplicity was carried to even greater
lengths by chefs that he had trained, mainly, Paul Bocuse, Jean and
Pierre Troisgros, Alain Chapel, François Bise and Louis Outhier. They
along with Michel Guérard and Roger Verge, were the pioneers of Nouvelle
cuisine in the early 1970’s. Their culinary philosophy was based on the
rejection of overly rich, needlessly complicated dishes. These chefs emphasized
healthy eating. The ingredients must be absolutely fresh and of the highest
possible quality, the cooking methods must be simple. The accompaniments must
be light and contribute of overall harmony, the completed plates must be
elegantly designed and decorated. Following these guidelines, some traditional
cooking methods have been applied to non traditional ingredients, and
ingredients have been combined in new and previously unorthodox fashions. For
chefs with knowledge, skill, taste and judgment, this works.
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MARIE – ANTOIN (ANTONIN) CARẾME
CAREME was
known as the King of Cooks and the Cook of Kings. He was the acknowledged
master of French Grande Cuisine. Abandoned on the streets of Paris as a
child, he worked his way from a cook’s helper in a working class restaurant
to become one of the most prestigious chefs of his time. During his career,
he was chef to the famous diplomat and gourmand, Prince de Talleyrand, the
prince regent of England, who later became King George IV; Czar Alexander I
of Russia and Baron Rothschild, among others.
His
stated goal was to achieve lightness, grace, and order in
the preparation and presentation of food. As a patissier, he
designed elegant and elaborate pastry and confectionary items, many of which
were based on architectural designs. As a showman, he garnished his dishes
with ornamental skewers (hatelets) threaded with colorful ingredients such as
crayfish and intricately carved vegetables, and presented his creations on
elaborate bases (soccles). As a saucier, he standardized the use
of roux as a thickening agent, perfected recipes and devised a
system for classifying sauces. As a garde-manger, Carême popularized
cold cuisine, emphasizing moulds and aspic dishes.
As
a culinary professional, Carême designed kitchen tool, equipment and uniforms.
As an author, he wrote and illustrated many texts on the culinary arts,
including Le Maitre d’hotel Francais (1822), describing the
hundred of dishes he created and presented in the various capitals of
Europe; La Patissier royale parisienne(1825), describing elaborate and
fanciful designs for les pieces montées (center pieces), that were
the crowning glory of grand dinners; and his five volume masterpiece on the
state of his profession, L’art de la cuisine au XIXe siecie(1833),
the last two volumes of which were completed after his death by his
protégé and associate Plummerey. His treatises were not mere cookbooks.
Rather, he analysed cooking, both old and new, emphasizing procedure and
order and covering every aspect of the art of le Grande Cuisine.
Carême
died before age 50, burnt out, according to Laurent Tailhade, by the
flame of his genius and the coal of the spits. But this must have been the
glory he sought, for he once wrote: ‘the shorter the life, the greater
the glory’
AUGUSTE ESCOFFIER (1846-1935)
Escoffier’s brilliant
career began at the age of 13 in his uncle’s restaurant and continued until
his death at 89. Called the ‘emperor of the worlds kitchens’, he is
perhaps best known for defining French cuisine and dining.
Unlike
Carême, Escoffier never worked in an aristocratic household. Rather, he
exhibited his culinary skill in the dining rooms of the finest hotels in
Europe including the Place Vendome in Paris and the Savoy &Carlton hotels
in London.
Escoffier
did much to enhance the grande cuisine that arguably reached its
perfection under Carême. Crediting Carême with providing the foundation,
Escoffier simplified the profusion of flavors, dishes and garnishes that
typified Carême’s work. He also streamlined some of Carême’s overly elaborate
and fussy procedures and classifications. For example, he reduced Carême’s
elaborate system to classify sauces into the five mother sauces that is still
recognized today. Escoffier sought simplicity and aimed for the perfect
balance of a few superb ingredients. Some consider his refinement
of grande cuisine to have been so radical as to credit him with the
development of a new cuisine referred to ascuisine classique (classic or
classical cuisine)
His
many writings include Le livres des menus (1912), in which, discussing
the principles of a well balanced meal, he analogizes a great dinner to a
symphony with contrasting movements that should be appropriate to the
occasion, the guests and the season. His book Ma Cuisine was
published in 1934. However, his most important contribution is a culinary
treatise intended for the professional chef and was entitled Le Grande
Culinaire (1903). Still in use today, it is an outstanding
collection of more than 5000 classic recipes and garnishes. In it, Escoffier
emphasizes the mastery of techniques, the thorough understanding of cooking
principles and the appreciation of ingredients – attributes he considers to
be the building blocks professional chefs should use to create great dishes.
Escoffier
was honored as a Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor in 1920
for his work in enhancing the reputation of French cuisine.
FERNAND POINT (1897-1955)
A
massive man with a monumental personality, Point modernized and
refined the classic cuisine of Escoffier. By doing so, he laid the foundations
for Nouvelle Cuisine.
Point
received his early training in some of the finest hotel-restaurant kitchens
in Paris. In 1922, he and his family moved to Vienne, a city in the
south-west of France near Lyon, and opened a restaurant. Two years later, his
father left the restaurant to Fernand, who renamed it La Pyramide.
During the succeeding years, it became one of the culinary wonders of the
world.
Point
disdained dominating sauces and distracting accompaniments and garnishes. He
believed that each dish should have one dominant ingredient, flavor or theme.
Garnishes should be simple and must match like a tie to a suit.
Procedure was of great importance. His goal was to use the finest of raw
ingredients and to produce perfect food that looked elegant and simple. But
simplicity was not easy to achieve. As he once said, ‘a Bearnaise sauce is
nothing but an egg yolk, a shallot, a little tarragon vinegar and some
butter. But it takes years of practice to make it perfect’.
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INFLUENCES ON MODERN FOOD SERVICE OPERATIONS
The dramatic growth and diversification of the food service industry
is due in part to the Industrial Revolution and the social and economic changes
it wrought, including the introduction of new technologies, foods, concerns and
customers.
New Technologies
Technology has always had a profound effect on cooking. For example,
the development of clay and later metal vessels that could contain liquids and
could withstand and conduct heat offered prehistoric cooks the opportunity to
stew, make soups and porridge, pickle and brine foods and control fermentation.
But it was not until the rapid technological advances fostered by the
Industrial Revolution that anything approaching the modern kitchen was
possible.
One of the most important advancements was the introduction of the
cast iron stove. Prior to the 19th century, most cooking was done on spits
and grills or in cauldrons and pots set on burning coal or wood. This did not
lend itself to simultaneous cooking of different dishes or to items requiring
constant care and attention. With the introduction of cast iron stoves during
the 1800s (first wood, then coal and subsequently gas and finally electric by
early 20th century) cooks could now cook more comfortably and safely, and
control the temperatures. They were also able to efficiently prepare and hold
for later use or service a multitude of smaller amounts of items requiring
different cooking methods or ingredients, a necessity at a restaurant
simultaneously catering to different diners’ needs.
Also of great importance, were the developments of food preservation
and storage techniques. For thousands of years, food was preserved by sun
drying, salting, smoking and pickling, sugar curing and fermentation. Although
useful and effective, these methods destroy or distort the appearance and the
flavor of most foods. By the early 19th century, preserving techniques
that had minimal effect on appearance and flavor began to emerge. By 1800,
the Frenchman François Appert successfully canned food items by subjecting
food items stored in sterilized glass jars to very high heat. An early
mechanical refrigerator was developed by the mid 1800s; soon reliable
refrigerators, iceboxes and, later, freezers were available. During the
20th century, freeze-drying, vacuum packing and irradiation became common
preservation techniques.
While advancements were being made in preservation and storage
techniques, developments in transportation technology were also underway.
During the 19th century, steam powered ships and railroads were able
to bring foods quickly to the market from distant suppliers. During the
20th century, temperature controlled cargo ships, trains, trucks and
airplanes all were used as part of an integrated worldwide food transportation
network. Combined with reliable and dependable food preservation and storage
techniques, improved transportation networks have freed chefs from seasonal and
geographical limitations in their choice of foods and have expanded the
customers’ choices and culinary horizons.
Since the start of the Industrial revolution, chefs have come to
rely increasingly on mechanical and motorized food processors, mixers and
cutters as well as a wealth of sophisticated kitchen equipment such as high
carbon stainless steel knife blades, infra red thermometers and induction cook tops.
New Foods
Modern food preservation, storage and transportation techniques
have made both fresh and exotic foods regularly available to the chef and the
consumer.
Advancement in agriculture such as the switch from organic to chemical
fertilizers and the introduction of pesticides and drought or pest resistant
strains has resulted in higher crop yield. This of course has recently led to
serious and often heated debates as to the reliability and the safety of these
types of food. Organically grown crops have made a comeback and are
increasingly popular from the food safety point of view. Genetically Modified
Foods (GMF) are also being experimented with and some of these are already
available in the market. Hybridised and genetically engineered foods have
produced better crops, and, for better or for worse, fruits, vegetables and
other crops like grain, have a longer shelf life and are more amenable to
mass production handling, storage and transportation methods.
Likewise, advancements in animal husbandry and aquaculture have led
to a more reliable supply of leaner meat, poultry and fish. Moreover, foods
found traditionally only in the wild (for example, game, wild rice and some
kinds of mushrooms) are now being raised commercially and are routinely
available.
Food processing and preservation techniques have also led to the
development of pre packaged prepared convenience foods, some of which are
actually quite good. After careful thought and testing, today’s chef can rely
on some of these products. Doing so allows greater flexibility and more time to
devote to other preparations.
New Concerns
Consumer concerns about nutrition and diet have fuelled changes in
the food service industry. Obviously, what we eat, affects our health. Adequate
amounts of nutrients promote good health by preventing deficiencies; good
nutrition also helps prevent chronic diseases. The public has long been
concerned with food safety. Constant grading and inspection by the authorities
will help improve standards. Concerns about nutrition and food safety have also
resulted in renewed interest in organically grown food and with genetically
modified food.
New Consumers
Demographic and social changes have contributed to
the diversification of the food service industry by creating and identifying
new consumer groups, each with their own desires and needs. By tailoring their
menu, prices and décor accordingly, food service operators can cater to their
consumers needs. Through travel and exposure to books, magazines, TV shows
about food, consumers are becoming aware, better educated and sophisticated
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